Metallicity: A Problem for Secular Cosmology
Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe. It is the lightest element, consisting of one proton encircled by one electron. About 91% of the atoms in the universe are hydrogen. Helium is the next most abundant. It is the second-lightest element, consisting of two protons and two neutrons in the nucleus, encircled by two electrons. Helium constitutes just under 9% of the atoms in the universe. All the remaining elements combined constitute less than 1%. Astronomers refer to these heavier elements as metals. In astronomy, a metal is any element with an atomic number higher than 2. Note that this is different from the definition used by chemists. In astronomy metals include elements like oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon. Metals pose a serious challenge for advocates of the big bang and secular models of galaxy evolution. But they are a feature and natural expectation of biblical creation.