Previously, we began a series of articles about the so-called flat/stationary-earth prooftexts in the Bible. There is an abundance of vocal flat/stationary proponents (FSIPs) that go around citing a handful of biblical verses, alleging that these verses are proof that the Bible depicts, indicates, or implies a flat and/or stationary world.
In the previous article I explained how these FSIPs are failing to read the text carefully, removing these verses from their immediate literary context, and distorting the intended meaning of passages in order to seemingly validate their claims.
In this article, we’ll be looking at four of the most frequently cited passages by FSIPs as “proof” that the Bible indicates a stationary or unmoving earth. If you’ve been around the discussion for any amount of time, you’ll recognize them: Psalms 93:1, 96:10, 104:5 and 1 Chronicles 16:29-30.
The parts of these verses that FSIPs quote are as follows (here in the ESV):
Yes, the world is established; it shall never be moved. (Ps 93:1)
Yes, the world is established; it shall never be moved; (Ps 96:10)
Yes, the world is established; it shall never be moved. (1 Chr 16: 30)
He set the earth on its foundations, so that it should never be moved. (Ps 104:5)
FSIPs allege that, based upon the phrase “never be moved,” these verses clearly and unequivocally tell us that the earth/world is unmoving. That is, it’s stationary, completely motionless, and immobile.
Their belief is that “earth/world” in these passages must mean “the whole physical world,” and that the phrase “never be moved” is referring to physical “Newtonian” motion.
Is this interpretation correct? Are their assumptions valid, or is this another example of contextomy and quote-mining? Let’s take a brief look.
We’ll begin with the phrase “never be moved.” In Hebrew it’s the verb môṭ’ (in its various grammatical forms[1]) modified by the adverb bǎl.
The lexical definitions of the verb môṭ’ ( מוט ) are: “to slip, totter, stagger, quake, be shaken, toppled, moved, or removed.”[2] The biblical senses of môṭ’ include “to be caused to waver,” “to be caused to be shaken in one’s resolve,” “to be caused to move or shift into a new position or place” (either in a concrete or abstract sense), “to move without being stable, as if threatening to fall.”[3]
The adverb bǎl (no, not, never) negates the action of môṭ’. Hence, the wording “never be moved.”
This phrase (môṭ’ modified by bǎl) occurs eighteen other times in the OT. Of those, fourteen appear in the Psalms. That many other uses should give us a lot of insight about the phrase, especially the other uses in the Psalms!
So, of those fourteen other uses in the Psalms, how many times is this phrase referring to physical motion? None.
Yes, you read that right. Not once in these fourteen other occurrences in the Psalms does this phrase relate to physical motion. Rather, every time it appears, it’s used in relation to the condition of the ongoing stability of its subject. In all fourteen occurrences, it’s used as an idiom to convey the concept of an unchanging state of safety or security, communicating the abstract truth that the condition of its subject will not falter.
An idiom is an expression peculiar to a culture or cultures that, when taken as a whole, has a meaning that would not be naturally derived from the conjoined meanings of its individual elements. For example, the meanings of the phrases “beating around the bush” or “under the weather” would not be naturally derived from their individual words. Nonetheless, their meanings are clear in our culture.
In the same way, the Bible contains many idioms like “Apple of my eye” (4×), “your right hand” (30×), “at hand” (24×), and “under your feet” (20×). These phrases don’t address literal, physical apples, eyes, hands, or feet. The meanings of the phrases cannot be derived from the conjoined meanings of their individual words.
For instance, the idiom “under your feet” conveys the concept of victory and dominion. Whether it be Israel’s victory over its enemies (Psalms 18:36-38; 47:3), the Lord’s victory over his enemies (Matthew 22:44), believers victory over Satan (Romans 16:20), or Jesus’ final victory and dominion over all things (Ephesians 1:22; 1 Corinthians 15:25, 27), the concept being communicated is not the geographical location of something relative to one’s physiological feet, but the idea of victory and/or dominion.
Likewise, the meaning of the phrase “never be moved” cannot be derived from the conjoined meanings of its individual words.
For instance, Psalms 15:5, 55:22, and 112:6 say, “the righteous will never be moved.” If these verses refer to physical motion, then anyone who is righteous is rendered completely physically immobile. Obviously, physical motion is not what’s being referred to by the phrase “never be moved.” Rather, the meaning of “never be moved” is that the condition of the righteous person is sure; they will not be shaken or fall from their righteous standing before God. As it says in Proverbs 12:3, “The root of the righteous will never be removed” (identical Hebrew phrase).
Psalms 21:7 and 30:6 assure King David that he “shall not be moved.” If we were to take the conjoined meaning of these words at face value, we would end up thinking that David never physically moved again. So, either David became a paraplegic that never moved from his bed once he became king, or this is once again an idiom conveying the security of David’s standing in God.
In Psalms 16:8 and 62:2, 6, David repeats the exact phrase (bǎl ēm· môṭ’). What does he mean? Well, here the phrase is translated, “I shall not be shaken.”[4] He’s speaking idiomatically, saying that his condition is secure, that he won’t fall from God’s sustaining grace. His hope in and standing before God is established, firm, sure.
Psalms 46:5 and 125:1 assure the reader that both the city of God and Mt. Zion “shall never be moved.” Is the author trying to convey the concept of physical motion here? No. The parallel term in 125:1 is “abides/endures.” And in Psalm 46 the author contrasts the city of God that (bǎl tim· môṭ’) “shall not be moved” with the other kingdoms that (môṭ’) “totter.” These words are about the enduring stability of these places. They’re established, firm, sure. They will not falter.
All fourteen other uses of this phrase in the Psalms are idiomatic. If these are, then there’s a fair chance that the phrase “never be moved” could be idiomatic in Psalms 93:1, 96:10, and/or 104:5 as well. But that doesn’t necessarily mean that they are. So, let’s look at these three occasions.
Is the use of the phrase “never be moved” in these Psalms different, intended to describe, depict, or otherwise concretely indicate that the whole world is unmoving? Or are they also intended to be idiomatic expressions?
Let’s first look at what these passages have in common before examining each of them in their particular literary contexts.
- All of these verses are poetic.[5] Hebrew poetry, like all poetry, is a type of stylized literature that incorporates symbolic and/or figurative language to communicate abstract concepts, ideas, or truths.
- All three passages appear in book IV of Psalms (Ps 90-106), which focuses on God as king and the world under His sovereign reign.
- Each of these passages incorporates a descriptive phrase about the “world/earth.”
the world is… it shall… (Ps 93:1; Ps 96:10 cf. 1 Chron 16:30)
He set the earth on… so that it should… (Ps 104:5) - Each also incorporates the phrase “never be moved,” in reference to the world/earth.
Let’s now look at each of the passages to ascertain their meanings.
Psalm 93:1-2
The Lord reigns; he is robed in majesty;
the Lord is robed; he has put on strength as his belt.
Yes, the world is established; it shall never be moved.
2 Your throne is established from of old;
you are from everlasting.
First of all, we need to understand the context of the psalm itself. What was the overall purpose for its being written? Psalm 93 is a psalm about God’s sovereign dominion over the world, as the opening line extols, “The Lord reigns.”
As commentator Tremper Longman III summarizes the psalm like this, “The psalmist proclaims God as King of the world. He is not proclaiming him as King for the first time. Far from it. He has been King from all eternity. There never was a time when God was not sovereign ruler of the universe. Human kings are dressed in fine ornamental clothing, but God’s robes are his majesty. Human kings carry ornamental maces called sceptres and go to battle using sword and spear, but God’s weapon is his strength. As a result of God’s kingship, the world is stable (established, firm and secure).”[6]
The purpose of this psalm is to declare the surety of the Lord’s sovereign rule over the world, and the resultant stability of the world He rules. With this backdrop established, we can now ask, “What does ‘the world is established; it shall never be moved’ mean within this context?” Is it indeed indicating or inferring that the tangible world is physically stationary as FSIPs suggest? Or do these words communicate a different idea?
Well, we have a wonderful advantage for understanding this passage since it’s Hebrew poetry. Hebrew poetry is formed by parallelism, and so, all we need to do is identify the type of parallelism the author is using and then determine the parallel phrase in order to grasp the psalmist’s intended meaning.
Here the psalmist is using synonymous parallelism.
…the world is established;
…it shall never be moved.
The phrase “is established” corresponds with, and is therefore meant to be analogous to, “shall never be moved.”
As Jason Lisle says, “Since the passage (like all of the psalms) is poetic, the two parallel phrases must be interpreted as a unit. Any alternative will not arrive at the meaning of the passage — the author’s intention. Thus, the phrase ‘established’ must be directly comparable to ‘cannot be moved.’”[7]
The Hebrew word here translated as established is kûn and is variously defined as: “established,” “stable,” “securely determined,” “sure,” “sustained,” “founded,” “made firm,” “readied,” “steadfast,” and “appointed.”
What is the author’s intended meaning of “established” here? Well, he further helps our interpretation by repeating the same word in the very next stanza.
“Your throne is established [kûn] from of old; you are from everlasting.”
Now, if we’re to consistently follow the FSIPs’ “literal,” concrete reasoning here, our understanding of this stanza would be that God’s material throne doesn’t change physical locations; He’s stayed in the same geographical location forever.
Dare I say that most FSIPs would never interpret this stanza like that because it’s simply ridiculous? We all recognize that this stanza is utilizing figurative language to convey abstract concepts.
In this stanza God’s throne, a metaphor for His sovereign rule, is established from “of old,” from eternity past. The clear meaning is that the Lord’s kingship is definite, determined, settled securely and unconditionally from forever to forever.
The word established in v.2 is communicating the abstract concept of stability and surety, of being securely determined. In like manner, the world is also established.
As J.A. Motyer notes, “Vs 1–2 work downwards from the securely enthroned Lord to the derivative security of the world he rules.” [8]
Remember, the entirety of the psalm is about the sovereign dominion, the reign of God. The psalmist is talking about the condition of the world in relation to the Lord’s reign. Just as God’s sovereign rule has remained stable, it has never faltered, nor ever will, so too the earth under that rule. His sovereign will will be done.
As Lloyd Ogilvie says, “The earth, however, has no autonomous existence. It is established because God is established.”[9]
You’ll also notice that the psalmist’s use of the term “world” here means much more than just the physical planet. This psalm is about the earthly realm; the world’s governments and their affairs, its armies and their conflicts, its peoples and their problems, its events and their consequences.
Commentator Allen P. Ross remarks, “By His rule the whole world will be firmly established (cf. 96:10). This means that all the moral and legal orders of life will be solidified under His dominion. Since His throne was established in eternity past, His reign on earth is solidly insured.”[10]
The psalmist’s intent here is to proclaim the Lord’s universal reign over all creation and its activities, NOT to tell us that the physical world is a stationary mass fixed in place.
In other words, the course of this world “will not deviate from the path that God has created for it, just as David says he will not deviate from his spiritual path,” writes Jason Lisle. “The Psalmist is not talking about motion, but rather about stability.”[11]
The phrases “is established” and “shall never be moved” communicate the concept of ongoing stability.
Dr. Lisle comments, “[This] indicates the ongoing and passive result of God’s action of establishing the world. In other words, because of God’s sovereign sustenance of the world, as its controller, the world has an ongoing stability that He continues to provide. The action verb here has the idea of becoming or being stable — to be firm, fixed, stable, secure, or established.”[12]
The earth and all its governments, people, and events are established by, sustained by, and will never be moved from under God’s reign. Lloyd Ogilvie summarizes these two verses, “Thus, the world is established in the eternal God. He reigns as King (v. 1) and manifests this reign through His faithful preservation of this planet and His powerful interventions in our lives.”[13]
The meaning of “shall never be moved” in Psalm 93 is clear and is the same as the other fourteen places in the Psalms that we’ve looked at. It’s an idiom for ongoing stability. There isn’t even the slightest hint of physical motion being indicated nor inferred in this passage.
As Richard D. Phillips says, “The point of this statement is not that the earth is fixed in space, with the sun orbiting around it, as some early medieval scholars claimed. The emphasis is moral and decretal, not scientific or astronomical. God’s order and righteousness cannot be overthrown, despite the presumptions of earthly governments that seek to replace God’s law with perverse demands. God’s will for the world is unshakable and fixed.”[14] (emphasis mine)
Psalm 96:10 (cf. 1 Chronicles 16:30*)
(*note: Psalm 96:1-13 and 1 Chronicles 16:23-33 are parallel passages. One is a direct quotation of the other. They will therefore be treated as one.) Let’s look at verses 9 and 10 of Psalm 96:
9 Worship the Lord in the splendor of holiness;
tremble before him, all the earth!
10 Say among the nations, “The Lord reigns!
Yes, the world is established; it shall never be moved;
he will judge the peoples with equity.
You’ll immediately recognize the many similarities of this passage with Psalm 93:1. Both Psalms are about the condition of the world in relation to the Lord’s reign. “The Lord reigns!” (Ps 93:1a; 96:10a).
Both also utilize synonymous parallelism along with the same parallel phrases “is established” and “shall never be moved.” Everything that was said above about the phrases “is established” and “shall never be moved” in Psalm 93:1 also applies here.
In their Commentary on the Old Testament, Keil and Delitzsch, say, “As in 93:1… The world below, hitherto shaken by war and anarchy, now stands upon foundations that cannot be shaken in time to come, under Jahve’s righteous and gentle sway.”[15] [emphasis mine]
As Mark Futato comments, “96:10 cannot be shaken. For this image of the earth as unshakable from the time of creation onward, see 93:1 and 104:5.”[16]
In this Psalm, King David is celebrating as the ark of the covenant is brought up to Jerusalem, summoning Asaph and his brothers to thank and praise the Lord for His past, present, and future providential reign over all peoples and events (1 Chronicles 16:1-34). Nothing on earth has been, is, or ever will be outside of God’s control. The earth shall never be moved.
As Tremper Longman III says of this passage, “Because God is King and in sovereign control, the world is stable.”[17]
The next line of this poem, that the Lord “will judge the peoples with equity,” further confirms that this is the psalmist’s meaning. This line directly corresponds with the previous two, further proclaiming the Lord’s utter control over the world, its inhabitants, governments, and affairs.
Richard D. Phillips comments here, “The point is that despite the turbulent affairs of men, many of which arrogantly flout God’s rule, God nonetheless reigns sovereignly over all affairs.”[18]
“Since Yahweh reigns, ‘the world is also firmly established.’ The powers of chaos cannot ‘overcome His creation, which He continues to uphold ‘by the word of His power’ (Heb. 1:3). ‘It shall not be moved.’ Moreover, as King, Yahweh not only rules; He also judges. He establishes the order of His kingdom and holds us accountable to it,”[19] say Donald Williams and Lloyd Ogilvie about this verse.
Psalms 93 and 96 are about the Lord’s established reign over the world and the people of the world; it is firmly established and will never be usurped or undone or falter. The phrase “it shall never be moved” is unquestionably an idiom for the ongoing stability of the earthly realm under God’s reign. Its future course under God’s rule is as fixed and unalterable as the past is.
In The Preacher’s Complete Homiletic Commentary, James Wolfendale says this song of David depicts “. . . a reign of moral stability. ‘The world,’ shaken with revolutions, impaired with sin, ‘shall be stable,’ settled in government and free from invasions, ‘that it be not moved.’ Society is safe, social and political order secure.”[20]
Everything in the world system is established, settled, placed on the firm footing of the Lord’s unchanging rule. Just as Zion and the righteous are established and secure and upheld by Him in all those other passages!
As C.H. Spurgeon says in The Treasury of David, “The world also shall be established that it shall not be moved.” Society is safe where God is king, no revolutions shall convulse his empire, no invasions shall disturb his kingdom.”[21]
There isn’t even the slightest hint of the Newtonian motion or stationarity of the physical world in the psalmist’s words here. To allege this is a perversion of the text.
Psalm 104:5
In context, let us consider Psalm 104:1-9:
Bless the Lord, O my soul!
O Lord my God, you are very great!
You are clothed with splendor and majesty,
2 covering yourself with light as with a garment,
stretching out the heavens like a tent.
3 He lays the beams of his chambers on the waters;
he makes the clouds his chariot;
he rides on the wings of the wind;
4 he makes his messengers winds,
his ministers a flaming fire.
5 He set the earth on its foundations,
so that it should never be moved.
6 You covered it with the deep as with a garment;
the waters stood above the mountains.
7 At your rebuke they fled;
at the sound of your thunder they took to flight.
8 The mountains rose, the valleys sank down
to the place that you appointed for them.
9 You set a boundary that they may not pass,
so that they might not again cover the earth.
Psalm 104 is a song of praise to the Lord for His greatness as reflected by His provision in and dominion over creation. “Bless the Lord, O my soul! O Lord my God, you are very great!” (1)
In this psalm the writer poetically recalls various works of God’s providence as the reason for blessing Him. “O Lord, how manifold are your works! In wisdom have you made them all”. (24)
Conservative scholars and commentators differ over which particular works of God the psalmist is describing. Many think these are the works of creation in Genesis 1; others the works of God in creation and the flood; and still others a general description of how the Lord has and continues to work in human history.
Why the differing views? Because the passage is poetic and filled with an abundance of figurative language.
Amid this song of praise, we read in v.5:
He set the earth on its foundations, so that it should never be moved.
FSIPs allege that this verse means that the world is physically stationary. Is this indeed what the author is intending to convey here? Or is physical stationarity even a possibility here?
In interpreting this verse, we once again have the benefit of parallelism. This time the poet is incorporating synthetic parallelism where the phrase “so that it should never be moved” provides additional information about “He set the earth on its foundations” (the first cola). You can see the close relationship of these two phrases. The second clause shows us the purpose for the action of the first clause. The Lord wills that the earth “never be moved,” and so He’s “set the earth on its foundations.”
What then does “He set the earth on its foundations” mean?
FSIPs allege that the foundations mentioned here are literal, solid, material structures that the physical world is placed upon. It’s like a house or building being built on a concrete foundation so that the building doesn’t move when the weather gets bad.
This is a valid and oft-used definition for the term foundations in Scripture. Indeed, Jesus used this very analogy in the NT (Matt. 7:24-27; Luke 6:47-49). But it’s certainly not the only definition or use. After all, Jesus wasn’t teaching His hearers to literally write His words on a physical rock or foundation. He was using the metaphor of a physical foundation to encourage His listeners to build their faith on the immaterial, abstract foundation of His words.
The Hebrew word translated foundations here is mā·ḵôn. That might look somewhat familiar. Yes, it’s the word ḵôn (established) with the prefix mā. This word only occurs two other times in the Psalms.
Righteousness and justice are the foundation [mā·ḵôn] of your throne; steadfast love and faithfulness go before you. (Ps 89:14)
Clouds and thick darkness are all around him; righteousness and justice are the foundation [mā·ḵôn] of his throne. (Ps 97:2)
You’ll immediately recognize that these verses are incorporating an abstract concept of a foundation. No one believes that righteousness and justice are physical things upon which sets a material throne that God sits on.
As our church has preached through the book of Genesis this year, the main theme has been “Foundations.” This is because the foundations of human identity, ethnicity, marriage, ethics, covenant, and the Gospel are found in Genesis. Obviously, these foundations are abstract concepts, not physical structures.
So too are righteousness and justice. They have no extension in space or time. They are abstract realities upon which the nonliteral throne of God is established.
This also sounds kind of familiar, doesn’t it? It summons us to recall Psalm 93:1–2.
“Your throne is established [kûn] from of old; you are from everlasting.”
All three of these verses are about God’s throne. You’ll recall that God’s throne is a metaphor for His sovereign rule. And just as God’s throne being “established” is a metaphorical abstract truth, so God’s throne having a foundation of righteousness and justice is also a metaphorical, abstract truth.
It then appears likely that the foundations of which the psalmist speaks here in 104:5 are His sovereign rule in righteousness and justice. And the fact that the earth is set on them, established on them, would then lead us to the same understanding of the phrase “should not be moved” as we’ve seen in the sixteen other occurrences in the Psalms.
So, what are these verses in Psalm 104 saying? J.A. Motyer summarizes, “[Verses] 5–9 apply the foregoing images of the Creator in relation to creation: he engineered its security, determined its condition, and, by his mere word, ordered it into its predetermined and lasting form.”[22]
And how do the preponderance of biblical scholars and commentators interpret v.5? Here’s a sampling (all emphases are mine).
“Thus in creation He secured the earth ‘so that it should not be moved forever.’ This does not mean that the earth is eternal. It does mean that it will not ‘be moved’ (‘totter,‘ ‘slip,‘ ‘fall‘) into chaos or autonomy, because God made it, upholds it, and will keep it always.”[23] -Donald Williams and Lloyd J. Ogilvie
“Here the prophet celebrates the glory of God, as manifested in the stability of the earth.”[24] -John Calvin
“The psalmist asserts God’s decreed limits as the cause for the earth’s stability.”[25] -Richard D. Phillips
“Yet it is immovably firm and secure. How unsearchable is His wisdom, and how unlimited His power, who thus wonderfully sustains the world!!”[26] – William Jones
“The language is, of course, poetical, but the fact is none the less wonderful: the earth is so placed in space that it remains as stable as if it ware [sic] a fixture.”[27] – C. H. Spurgeon
Notice that each commentator renders the phrase “should never be moved” as having to do with the ongoing stability of the earthly realm based upon the assurance of God’s sovereign continuous upholding of it, just like in Psalms 93:1 and 96:10.
As William Barrick, Michael J. Oard, and Paul Price note, “Psalm 104:5b (‘so that it should never be moved’) presents a theme occurring in contexts like Psalms 93:1; 96:10; and 1 Chronicles 16:30, which all speak of the Lord’s sovereign rule over the earth. …The psalmist’s primary concern… consists of meditating on the sovereign God’s control over all creation at all times— from creation up to the psalmist’s own day.”[28]
The phrase “should never be moved” is here understood in the same way it’s understood in the sixteen other occurrences in Psalms: as an idiom for ongoing stability. It once again has nothing to do with physical motion.
- R. Fausset comments, “What is denied is not the earth’s motion, but the possibility of its being disturbed from the place in the universe which God has assigned it. …the earth, is firmly founded by God’s omnipotence.”[29]
There is simply no justification for FSIP claims that any of these passages either indicate or infer a physically stationary world. A straightforward understanding of these texts within their contexts reveals that the FSIPs’ predetermined definitions of these terms, phrases, and verses are completely unwarranted. They’re arbitrarily reading their preconceived cosmological definitions into these passages to justify their geostationary interpretations.
In our next article we’ll discuss “Joshua’s long day” and the FSIPs’ geostationary interpretation of it.
[1] The various grammatical forms of môṭ’ include yim· môṭ’ (3rd prsn., sing., male), tim· môṭ’ (3rd prsn., sing., fem.), ēm· môṭ’ (1st prsn., sing.), na· môṭ’ (3rd prsn., pl.).
[2] Swanson, J. A. 1997. Dictionary of Biblical Languages with Semantic Domains: Hebrew (OT). Faithlife.
[3] Hoogendyk, I. 2017. Lexham Analytical Lexicon of the Hebrew Bible. Bellingham, WA: Lexham Press.
[4] ESV, NIV, NLT, NASB
[5] Yes, the book of First Chronicles is historical narrative, yet this passage is the record of a song of thanksgiving that is also recorded in Psalm 96. The two passages are the same.
[6] Longman, T. III. 2014. Psalms: An Introduction and Commentary (Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries Volumes 15-16) (D. G. Firth, Ed., p. 334). Nottingham, England: Inter-Varsity Press.
[7] Lisle, J. 2015. Understanding Genesis: How to Analyze, Interpret, and Defend Scripture (p. 198). Green Forest, AR: Master Books.
[8] Wenham, G. J., et al. 1994. New Bible Commentary, 21st Century Edition (p. 547). Leicester, England: Inter-Varsity Press.
[9] Williams, D. 1989. The Preacher’s Commentary – Vol. 14: Psalms 73-150 (L. J. Ogilvie, Ed., p. 171). Nashville: Thomas Nelson Inc.
[10] Walvoord, J. F. and R. B. Zuck. 1985. The Bible Knowledge Commentary (Old Testament) (p. 861). Wheaton, IL: Victor Books.
[11] Lisle, J. 2015. Understanding Genesis: How to Analyze, Interpret, and Defend Scripture (p. 199). Green Forest, AR: Master Books.
[12] Lisle, J. 2015. Understanding Genesis: How to Analyze, Interpret, and Defend Scripture (p. 198). Green Forest, AR: Master Books.
[13] Williams, D. 1989. The Preacher’s Commentary – Vol. 14: Psalms 73-150 (L. J. Ogilvie, Ed., p. 171). Nashville: Thomas Nelson Inc.
[14] Phillips, R. D. 2020. Psalms 73–106 (Reformed Expository Commentary) (p. 306). Phillipsburg, NJ: P & R Publishing.
[15] Keil, C. F. and F. Delitzsch. 1996. Commentary on the Old Testament: Psalms (p. 624). Peabody, MA: Hendrickson.
[16] Futato, M. and G. M. Schwab. 2009. Psalms, Proverbs (Cornerstone Biblical Commentary) (P. W. Comfort, Ed., p. 309). Carol Stream, IL: Tyndale House Publishers.
[17] Longman, T. III. 2014. Psalms: An Introduction and Commentary (Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries Volumes 15-16) (D. G. Firth, Ed., p. 342). Nottingham, England: Inter-Varsity Press.
[18] Phillips, R. D. 2020. Psalms 73–106 (Reformed Expository Commentary) (p. 306). Phillipsburg, NJ: P & R Publishing.
[19] Williams, D. 1989. The Preacher’s Commentary – Vol. 14: Psalms 73-150 (L. J. Ogilvie, Ed., p. 189). Nashville: Thomas Nelson Inc.
[20] Wolfendale, J. 1892. The Preacher’s Complete Homiletic Commentary: 1 and 2 Chronicles (pp. 74-75). New York: Funk & Wagnalls Company.
[21] Spurgeon, C. H. 1869. Treasury of David: Volume IV (p. 183). New York: Marshall Brothers.
[22] Wenham, G. J., et al. 1994. New Bible Commentary, 21st Century Edition (p. 553). Leicester, England: Inter-Varsity Press.
[23] Williams, D. 1989. The Preacher’s Commentary – Vol. 14: Psalms 73-150 (L. J. Ogilvie, Ed., p. 235). Nashville: Thomas Nelson Inc.
[24] Calvin, J. and J. N. Anderson. 2010. Commentary on the Book of Psalms Volume 4 (p. 148). Bellingham, WA: Logos Bible Software.
[25] Phillips, R. D. 2020. Psalms 73–106 (Reformed Expository Commentary) (p. 398). Phillipsburg, NJ: P & R Publishing.
[26] Jones, W. 1892. The Preacher’s Complete Homiletic Commentary: Psalms (Volume II) (p. 130). New York: Funk & Wagnalls Company.
[27] Spurgeon, C. H. 1869. Treasury of David: Volume IV (p. 303). New York: Marshall Brothers.
[28] Barrick, W., et al. 2020. Psalm 104:6–9 likely refers to Noah’s Flood: Journal of Creation 34 (April): 102-109.
[29] Fausset, A. R. 1984. A Commentary: Critical, Experimental, and Practical on the Old and New Testaments (vol. III, p. 324). London: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.